Role of Culture in Change Management

Executive Summary Culture refers to â€Å"a people’s way of life†. In the business context, the values and norms of an organization or company form the organization’s culture. Enhanced technology together with the increase in the number of products in the global market has led to a turbulent and dynamic business environment.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Role of Culture in Change Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For companies to remain afloat in the competitive environment, they must always be ready embrace change. Every organization in the 21st century is aware the change scenario, the only challenge lies in the manner in which the change strategy is implemented (Cameron and Quinn 2006). A company’s culture is lies in mission and vision. This paper looks at the role of the role of organization culture in managing change. In understanding the impact of a company’s culture on change management, the â€Å"integrated cultural framework† is used as a measuring tool (Krastchmer 2005). This takes into account the ability to influence, need to maintain the status quo, need to achieve, time and space as parameters of measurement. The paper also looks at the different organization cultures and how each of them affects change management in the organization. The Scope of Organizational Change The working environment in any company is faced by four types of change. These are classified under process, power, culture and functions. In the process dimension, companies are forced to adapt new working processes as they seek to align to changes brought about by technology. Recurrent innovations are yielding new and better ways of transacting businesses, making the old models obsolete and unprofitable. For any company or industry to survive in this scenario, it must put its operation processes on top and be ready to welcome new innovations every time. Fu nctional change entails possible changes that can be effected from time to time in the company’s organization structure. These changes are both vertical and horizontal. Most organizations in the current business era are finding reason to shift their management styles from bureaucratic models to open and network based models.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Another model that has been in use in most organizations is the leader-follower model. The model develops an enhanced leader, follower relationship that results in a stable â€Å"internal locus of control† (Krastchmer 2005). Power change is about sharing of power as concerns decision making in the organization. This type of change dimension revolves around the formation of dominant centers of power that direct the rest of the actors in the company. The power change has been cited as the most difficult to app ly, and is often met by a lot of challenges in organizations. Formation of team coalitions in an organization helps in achieving effective and functional workforce as opposed to having a single centre of power (Cameron and Quinn 2006). The single centre of power is often responsible for formation of rebellious forces in the organization, which aim at countering the authority. The cultural change, which is the main part of this paper focuses on the values and norms of the people in the organization. Every organization has norms and values which are either productive or counterproductive to the organization’s set objectives. It is the duty of the leaders in the organization to weed out the unproductive norms and retain the ones that are aligned to good production. An organization can only succeed on changing the culture by ensuring total commitment to change by both the management and employees. There are three main steps to eliminate cultural resistance in an organization. The first step is to ensure every member of the organization feels worthy to be in the organization during the period of change. When members perceive the change as being directed to the benefit of the organization, and them being part of it, they commit themselves to the change. The second step is for the management to allow employees to take up the task of implementing the change. Employees should play the role as agents of change so that it is not perceived to be a forced idea on them from the management. The third step is to ensure respect of the leadership decision right from below. Leadership teams often encounter problems implementing change decisions because their decisions are not respected. The final step in eliminating cultural resistance is to â€Å"practice leadership through leaning† (Krastchmer 2005).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Role of Culture in Change Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Lea rn More Leadership is a learning process, every time a leader makes a decision, he or she learns lessons from the impact that the decision has on the organization. The learnt lessons should also be shared with the members of the organization to provide them a similar learning opportunity. Change Management Approaches There are two main approaches used in change management; they are planned and emergent approach. The planned approach is based on the assumption that what determines change can be planned for in advance. The approach also takes into account technology as an integral part of change management. In this approach, the organization managers are charged with the responsibility of directing the change process. This approach is slowly being replaced by the emergent approach due to high failure rates in its application occasioned by the complex nature of organizations in the current era (Cameron and Quinn 2006). The approach also puts more emphasis on technology as a component of the change process at the expense of other socio-cultural factors. The emergent approach takes into account the current behavior aspects of the organization in the change process. The approach does not vest all the responsibilities of directing change process to the senior management, all actors are encouraged to implement the change process in the organization. The approach looks at change as a continuous process in the organization thus helping the actors to understand the influence of culture on the change process. The Effect of Culture in Managing Organizational Change There is a concerted effort in every organization directed towards elimination of old cultural modes to more current business oriented modes. This involves a consistent â€Å"shift from cultural conformity† to a mode that is open to new ideas on ways of doing things (Cameron and Quinn 2006). Cameron and Quinn (2006, p. 35) note that there is a record number of failures in change management at organizati onal level, suggesting a fresh approach to â€Å"thinking and perceiving change†. Culture affects an organizations change management in a number of ways as will be described below. Strict Organization Management This is a culture where the management makes decisions in a dictatorial manner without consulting the staff. This could be seen in the manner in which the management decides to sideline the views of the junior staff in making decisions concerning buying of company equipment or machines and other resources.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Without consulting the actual user of the machine for example, the management can buy wrong equipment or even obsolete ones. In some cases, the management restricts the staff to using only certain types of technology platforms, and as a result impede on the productivity of the staff. The management in such cases aims at saving on the cost of training staff on the new processes or buying sophisticated machines. This culture tunes the mind of employees to work according to the orders without question the authority. It is difficult to effect and manage new changes in such organizations as workers are not usually part of the decisions body. Organization management needs to invest in research and development all the time to ensure they fully understand the effect of the changes effected in the organization. The Centralization Culture There are organizations in which core services to employees are centralized in one place. Such services could include; ICT support, staff welfare and human resource benefits. A centralized culture is quite cumbersome especially in large organizations where employees have to go through a lot of bureaucracy to get services (Schein 2010). A lot of time is wasted as one tries to go through a bureaucratic chain to get service. For example, in a large higher learning institution with several campuses operating in a centralized mode, services such as printing, course admission and examinations department would have to be coordinated from one place. This mode of operation leads to lose of time, results and poor performance (Krastchmer 2005). Centralization only helps in achieving uniformity in terms of the service provided by the organization. Proponents of this type of approach associate it with efficiency and low cost on facility maintenance (Cameron and Quinn 2006). The system however reduces the freedom of employees to carry out their duties, and also hampers knowledge creation in the organization. For organizations that apply knowledge fo r operation like schools, it’s not just enough to look at every operation in terms of efficiency and profitability. It matters also to look at how knowledge is created and shared across the organization. Employees need to have freedom to create knowledge that helps the organization to grow its network. Cameron and Quinn (2006, p. 52) note that some of the excellent organizations in the world have learnt to create small teams within the organization and setting them upon each other in a completion that is all geared towards the same goal. Changes in such an organization may proof difficult to effect as everything has to follow a long chain of bureaucracy causing a waste of time. Disregarding the Views of Employee’s In some organizations, the management does not consider the views of the employees especially on matters that regard their welfare. Before embarking on any change initiative, the management must seek to find out the effect the proposed change will have on the production of the workers. It’s important that they consider the views of the employees before phasing out or introducing any program so as to align the changes to the needs and aspirations of the workers. By locking out the views of the workers, the management propagates the status quo, which creates resistance to the change that could be suggested by employees (Schein 2010). Organizations need to invest in properly qualified workers whose ability and opinion they can trust. If a management team is in-charge of lowly qualified staff, they tend to make every decision without considering their â€Å"substandard† opinion. This often happens when an organization transits from small to large enterprise. It’s common for small organizations to hire employees with low qualifications, whose opinions can ignore (Alvesson and Sveningsson 2007). Such organizations develop the culture of disregarding the opinion of the workers. Organizations are now moving to appreciating and looking at employees as an important asset of the organization, who should be consulted in every decision. Schein (2010, p. 46) points out that appreciating employees’ opinion makes them feel part of the organization and gives them a feeling of ownership. Resistance to Change Research indicates that employees tend to resist changes that require further learning to acquire the necessary skills (Alvesson and Sveningsson 2007). A change involving new computer software in an organization may require that the intended users attend training to acquire new relevant skills to use the software. The old generation employees are often on the forefront to reject such changes; they instead prefer processes that they are used to. Organization Support Culture Support to employees by organization creates a sense of emotional belonging to the organization. This is especially when a staff member is in critical situations such as; sickness or grieving the loss of a loved one. It’s im portant for an organization to show support to employees who find themselves in such situations by standing with them during the period of the problem (Schein 2010). Most organizations have welfare committees that cater for the welfare of their staff by providing moral support in times of sickness of death of close ones. Besides support during difficult moments, organizations also need to develop a support culture to members who come with innovative ideas. Members of staff are more likely to come up new ideas mostly in their fields of specialization, which can help the organization grow. If the management fails to show support and even recognize such workers, other workers with similar ideas in future may shy away from presenting them to the organization. Members of staff can sacrifice and spend time to research and bring useful ideas to the organization, if they are assured of the organization’s support in the implementation of the idea. Collaborative Culture Organizations m ust seek to foster â€Å"a participative culture† in the organization. Organizations that fail to foster â€Å"a participative culture† often end up with employees who are always unwilling to take part in voluntary projects in an organization (Alvesson and Sveningsson 2007). An organization may want to take part in a voluntary activity such as tree planting or a charity walk, but if the employees have not developed a participative culture, only a few may take part. This attitude affects employees’ willingness to take part in free trainings or seminars organized by the organization. Alvesson and Sveningsson (2007, p. 89) claim that in the case of learning institutions, students and teachers may refuse to take on extra lessons or even participate in extracurricular activities. Sharing Knowledge in an Organization Knowledge grows when it’s shared, knowledge based organizations such as schools, colleges and universities have a duty to grow a culture of knowle dge creation and dissemination. University professors must make contributions in academic journals in their areas of specialization in order to attain certain qualifications. Academic institutions peg promotions to the number of publications a professor has on his or her account in various academic journals. This attitude breeds a habit of concealing ideas from the public in order to be the first to publish just to have an edge over the rest (Schein 2010). Organizations that organize the need of knowledge sharing organize forums that bring together both internal and external participants to share knowledge on various topics. If this is developed as a culture in an organization, more staff members can be willing to research and share information with their colleagues various issues. In the current era, where technology has taken the centre stage in every process, the internet is becoming an important platform for knowledge sharing. Blogs and social media such as facebook and twitter are gaining popularity in providing a forum for information sharing. Company or organization websites are also used as points of getting sharing information in between the organization and the public. This can be in form of a database containing information of employee and organization’s achievements and services offered by the organization (Schein 2010). This besides acting as a marketing tool, it provides a cheap and easier way for organizations to communicate with the workers. Most organizations do not provide forum for employees to engage the management especially on matters affecting their welfare. This is because the fear that employees can use the forum to send attacking messages to the management or to incite other workers. The Learning Culture Because of the dynamic nature of the business environment today, organizations must provide their employees with opportunities to learn and expand their skills in line with the core business of the organization. Learning opport unities include; part time classes, short skills training courses, conferences and seminars that are relevant to the core business of the organization. An organization can also develop a learning culture by providing fee subsidies or scholarships to members that are willing to pursue studies at higher levels (Alvesson and Sveningsson 2007). Through the information gained from the learning sessions, the staff members gain vital information to deal with change in the organization. Most of the current changes in business organizations require new skill sets that can only be acquired through learning. The Mentorship Culture Organizations should develop a mentorship and skills transfer program where senior and experienced members of staff transfer their skills and knowledge to new members. The senior members need to co-opt junior members of staff and walk them through the various operations processes of the organization. In this regard, the junior staffs learn from the seniors through sk ills transfer process. Though the junior members of staff have little working experience, they may be well informed in emerging issues especially in areas of technology, which may be of great help to the organization (Cameron and Quinn 2006). Mentorship culture also helps in maintaining the culture of the institution, by allowing senior staff members to pass on the values and norms of the company to new entrants in the organization. It also offers guidelines to the junior staffs to manage change as they transit either from college to work or one organization to another. Conclusion This paper demonstrates the extent to which organizational culture can impact on change management in an organization. Its proposition is that the changes that come along in the course of operation should be anchored on the culture of the organization. The organization management should take a participatory approach in implementing changes in the organization. The paper also shows that cultures of strict f irm control, centralization and ignoring workers’ opinion is detrimental to realizing change management in an organization. The management is responsible for the formation of cooperative teams in the organization that support change implementation. The teams should be empowered and to encourage every member in the organization feel part of the â€Å"family† in the organization. Reference List Alvesson, M and Sveningsson, S 2007, Changing Organizational Culture: Cultural Change Work in Progress, Routledge, New York. Cameron, S and Quinn, E 2006, Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture: Based on Competing Values Framework, John Wiley and Sons, New York. Krastchmer, P 2005, Organizational Culture is highly resistant to Change- Discuss, Books on Demand, Nordestedt. Schein, H 2010, Organizational Culture and Leadership, John Willey and Sons, New York. This report on Role of Culture in Change Management was written and submitted by user Averie W. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Catatonic Depression

Catatonic Depression Introduction Major depressive disorder is a mental ailment in which the victim exhibits an extreme mood, low self regard as well as loss of concern in activities that are usually considered to be pleasurable. Catatonic (depression) is a major type of depression that is exemplified by relentless motor function disturbances. It is nonetheless not viewed as a disconnect disorder but usually linked with other psychiatric conditions, such as, drug abuse.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Catatonic Depression specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is caused by cognitions and environmental factors. The major cause of catatonic depression is negativity of a person or in the way he or she perceives different aspects of life. It is a disposition disorder and has an effect on an individual’s life, for example, the person’s health. It may even lead to suicide. This paper examines the causes, symptoms, preventio n, treatment and various arguments in relation to Catatonic depression. Literature Review Dhossche (2006) asserts that catatonic syndrome is characterized by coexistence of psychiatric symptoms and motor symptoms. There is an association of catatonia with depression, alcoholism, syphilis and epilepsy. Catatonic signs can appear in a variety of disorders and it is not therefore purely a psychiatric condition associated with schizophrenia as it was earlier believed. The identification of major depressive ailment is dependent on the self-reported occurrences from the patient himself/herself, demeanors accounted by acquaintances or family members, and a mental status test. Nevertheless, there is no (laboratory) examination for the disorder (major depression). Therapeutic practitioners in general call for examinations for (physical) conditions that may result in similar indications so as to establish the outcomes and degree of the major depression. According to Gelder, Mayou and Geddes ( 2005), a depressive ailment may result in dawdling recovery of the sick individual and may impinge on or deteriorate the victim’s physical health if it is not noticed at some point in the early phases. Beck and Alford (2009) asserts that in the class of disposition disorders, catatonic indicators are normally linked to bipolar I ailment which is a disposition disorder concerning depressive and mania phases. Signs and symptoms of catatonic exhilaration, for instance, unsystematic movement not linked to the surroundings or replication of phrases, words, and movements may take place for the period of manic stage. The authentic catatonic indicators are unfeasible to make a distinction from those witnessed in catatonic (schizophrenia). The catatonic symptoms may also appear in combination with other mood disorders, including bipolar II disorder, mixed disorders and major depressive disorders.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you ! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Causes of Catatonic depression Catatonic depression is mainly caused by problems in production of neurotransmitters within the brain. These are substances that carry out impulses beside a nerve (from one nerve unit to the other). Serotonins (as well as norepinephrine) are believed to be the most essential neuro-transmitters that are linked to depression. Other causes include psycho-social, genetic among other factors. Psychological causes This involves different aspects of personality, where there is negativity in ones way of life, there is a tendency to develop depression since ones emotions are affected in a negative way. This is caused by the inability of an individual to cope with situations and low self esteem. A person may develop depression due to ealy relationships with the parents or caretakers for example during infant stage for example loss of a parent or mistreatment and rejection of the child. Social causes Social factors like poverty can cause mental disorders one of them being depression. Child abuse which may be physical, emotional or sexual can cause depression later in life as the child live to remember the ordeal many years after its occurrence. This is built on the argument that it is during the childhood days that a person’s develops and learns how to be a social being. Any ill-treatment may disfigure a child’s character development and afterward lead to depression and other intellectual and expressive disorders. Some kinds of long-term drug use or over-use of drugs and alcohol can also cause depression or worsen depressive conditions. Evolutionary causes Major depression is associated with causing an increased individual reproductive fitness. Depression may be hereditary where the depression disorders may be passed genetically. This is linked to some species and the manner in which they adapt to various stimuli especially those who perceive things in a negative m anner. Signs of Catatonic dejection The most discrete indications are; motor immobility, intense negativism and denial to speak, replication of other individuals terms and deeds as well as eccentric movements. Mainly, people with catatonic depression remain motionless and may remain in a position in which they have been placed for a long time, unnecessary activity that is performed without a specific reason, feelings of worthlessness, unnecessary guilt and regret, helplessness, hopelessness, self-hatred, poor concentration and memory, withdrawal from social situations and activities, reduced sexual desires, and thoughts of suicide. Catatonic depression patients may be stigmatized (American Psychiatric Association, 2000)Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Catatonic Depression specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Prevention of Catatonic depression Although there is no one major preventive measure for depressive diso rders, the recommended way to prevent Catatonic depression is through Becks cognitive-behavioral therapy. The therapy works by breaking a persons negative perceptions about him or herself, the world, and their general view of different aspects of life. Catatonic (depression) Treatment Preliminary treatment is intended at mitigating the victim from the catatonic situation. The commonly used form of treatment is the use of antidepressants medication. Electroconvulsive remedy is also an effectual treatment for catatonia and its associated causes, for instance, depression. It has a more rapidly effect than anti-depressant (therapy) and hence it is suggested for urgent situations for example where one is refusing to take meals. Care should be taken in the provision of the medication since wrong use can worsen the situation. When first line treatment fails, other means are used, for example amantadine which may lead to tolerance when its use is prolonged hence causing psychosis. Memantine is another alternative and is ideal for persons who can not put up with amantadine for the reason that it has decreased frequencies of psychosis. Hospitalization is necessary for people who posses signs of being violent and the ability to harm themselves or others. Counseling is also essential to the patients as it helps them change their negative attitude towards life and value themselves. It helps the patients to raise their self- esteem and learn to live positively hence avoiding stress. Psychotherapy is very useful especially to older people and should be offered in conjunction with medication since it minimizes the chances of the disorder becoming recurrent. Physical exercise is also crucial in clearing moderate depressive disorders since it keeps the mind occupied and the body fit (Martin, Volkar and Lewis, 2007) It is believed that depressed individuals usually have shorter life expectancies than those without depression. This is because of greater vulnerability to medical i llnesses that lead to deterioration a person’s of health and also cases of suicide. Deficiency in societal support, for example, from the close family members may result in stress and strain, which is the commonly reported reason for depression. There are some speculations by the American Psychiatric Association(2000) that states that exposure to ultra-violet light reduces the chances of getting depressive disorders. 30 minutes of vigorous exercise three times a week also reduce the vulnerability of being a victim of depressive disorders.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The mainly employed treatments (for depression) are medication, psychiatric therapy, and electroconvulsive (therapy). Psychotherapy is the treatment moist suitable for people under the age of 18years while electroconvulsive therapy is only used where other treatments can not work because of one reason or another. Care and treatment of depression is mainly done outside the hospital unless for cases where the patients are violent and have signs of causing harm to themselves or to others. It is nevertheless hard to get excellent cure of depression in third world nations due to limited competent personnel as well as medication facilities. Conclusion Major depressive disorder is inclusive of various kinds of disorders each with its causes, symptoms, prevention and treatment. However most disorders share most of the symptoms and characteristics and it is therefore difficult to directly identify a disorder. It is advisable to take preventive measures to ensure that a person does not suffer from these disorders and if the disorder occurs the patient should seek medication early enough to avoid worse effects. Reference List American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th edition, text revised. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Beck, T. A., Alford B.A. (2009). Depression: Causes and Treatment. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press Dhossche, M.D. (2006). Catatonia in Autism Spectrum Disorders. San Diego: Academic Press Gelder, M.G., Mayou, R., Geddes, J. (2005). Psychiatry. 3rd ed. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press Martin, A., Volkar, A.F and Lewis, M. (2007). Lewiss child and adolescent psychiatry: a comprehensive textbook. 4th ed. New York: Williams Wilkins publishers.

To what extent, and in what ways, do the traditional theories of Essay

To what extent, and in what ways, do the traditional theories of employment relations help us to understand the modern Australia - Essay Example The theories are discussed based on mainly three grounds viz. unitarist, pluralist and also on Marx’s radical approaches. On the basis of such theories the industrial practices of the employers and the government’s role in such is analysed. This analysis is conducted to reflect on the reasons for the decline of the trade unions power and also on the needs for the changing business and industrial structures in the Australian framework. Introduction The government of Australia is taking potential steps to protect the plight of workers from undue practices of the employers in dismissing the employees from their work. Thus large number of employees in Australia is on an advantageous point in fighting against the event of them being unfairly dismissed of their work tenure. Further it is observed that small business outlets in Australia have more advantage in firing employees more often than larger ones. The employees in small business firms in the region need to work for ten ure of one year whereas for larger firms it is six months to fight back against unfair dismissal. (Schneiders, 2010). The Australian employers are also endeavouring to compensate the employees adequately against taking the basic rights of better living and work conditions from them. The employees are over compensated in turn of sacrificing their rights to getting better meal and laundry services. (Johnson, 2010). Employees of a computer packing company located in New South Wales are also found to largely complain of not being rendered their basic rights owing to better living and working standards. The employees stated that the payment rendered to them often fails to meet the travelling and living cost. (Bibby, 2010). However the government of Australia is endeavouring to take special care of the employees involved in construction and building industry especially in providing legal protection. (AAP, 2010). The Australian employers are also reflecting a strong recognition of the exis tence of large number of trade union bodies in the region. Australia has shown a huge rise of trade unionism in several industries like education and other public utility services. (Bibby, 2010; Hannan, 2010). Justification for Choosing the Issues The two issues chosen regarding employment relation conditions in respect to the Australian region pertain to two aspects. Firstly the issue regarding fair employment practices is dealt with in regards to the Australian industries. Secondly the issue of promoting trade unions is also surveyed in respect of the industrial environmental standards of Australia. The fair work practices in respect of the Australian industries reflect important issues in regards to employment relation conditions. The issues hover around important aspects relating to working conditions of the industries, delay in rendering financial compensation to the workers and also for gaining flexibility in relation to work timings. Further the minimum pay standards rendered to the workers are also dealt with in regards to the fair work practices in the Australian industries. The concept of fair work practices in regards to Australian industries is further extended to encourage the entry of large number o

Site Management and Engineering Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Site Management and Engineering - Essay Example For further safety of the site, an additional gate is placed just in front of the construction area, this is for occasional use. For instance movement of formwork when it is no longer required, this will not disrupt the movement at the entrance and in movement corridors, further making the site safe. The plant area is kept just in front of the construction area, as it will avoid to and fro movement of materials to construction site and save money, manpower and time. The junk area and storage area is kept at the corner end, this place will have minimum disturbance to corridor movement, will be safe from any theft and access to general public could be monitored as it is far from the working area. Lastly the rest area and cafeteria is kept opposite and away from the construction area, this will have a psychological effect on the workers as they will feel easy and this area will have least construction activities, hence least safety supervision will be required in this crowded area. Q 2 a) The most appropriate formwork system for in-situ concreting of lift walls would be Jump formwork system. This system consists of two components one being the formwork itself and the other the working platform from which the steel is fixed, concrete is poured. This type of formwork is self supporting and is most suitable for vertical elements such as lift walls. As the formwork is designed for staged processing hence it enables the speedy and efficient construction. The material of choice for our construction site would be Steel, this enables a perfect surface finish. But these steel frames must be properly designed before concrete is poured. The individual panels are attached to the frames which have different supporting conditions such roller support, once the concrete is poured and set, the panel is rolled back and a perfect finish is acquired. In the next process the jacks and lifting mechanism lifts the whole frame up one stage. The process is repeated again where panels are attached and then concrete is done. This shift of formwork and its components can take as less as 2 hours. This gives speedy and time effective solutions. Some of the views of the system made by Transkon FormworkSystem, are given in the figures below. Transkon are specialist of the field and renowned for new innovative formwork solutions. Q2 b) Although, the jump formwork provides several benefits such as the increase in construction speed and low resource requirement in terms of manpower. But at the same time it possesses considerable hazards against safety of workers and failure of formwork structural system. As mentioned earlier the formwork is self-supporting and self-climbing, hence there is the chance of structural failures of formwork, in case any joint or member fails and damages will be collateral. The first step towards safety is properly checked safe design of formwork and falsework. As these formworks work at a height hence an efficient free-fall breaking devices must be incorporated in the design. Then the platform in use must always be clear from any unnecessary material and waste should be removed as soon as possible. In addition a well maintained false work must be used for erection of the formwork and the platform. Each component must be oiled and painted properly. If excessive damages are seen in these parts they must be replaced. As our material of choice for false work and formwork is steel and metals hence corrosion of these components is to be monitored by the safety supervision team. Braces must be fastened properly, edge protections should be erected on the corners.     Ã‚  

The Early Explorers Journals Essay Example for Free

The Early Explorers Journals Essay Christopher Columbus and Samuel de Champlain were two of the most influential explorers in the history of the Americas. Columbus discovered the area near Caribbean Islands while Champlain explored the St. Lawrence Seaway. Their journals were very similar in the way they described what the two explorers saw. Yet they have some differences as well. There are some small differences that these two works carry. Columbus starts out each entry with the day that it began on. Like in the following passage, Monday Nov. 12th. They sailed from the port of the river (114). Champlain did not do it this way he simply stated facts from day to day. The way he writes it is like he is telling a story while Columbus is giving detailed information. The reason this was done may have something to do with the rulers that these two men were under. Columbus had to keep a detailed record for the ruler of Spain at the time. Champlain may not have had to do this being as Jacques Cartier had led an expedition through the same area for the French a few years earlier. The background of these two explorers definitely showed up in these journals. The two different time periods that Columbus and Champlain lived in also had an effect on their style of writing. Columbus expedition was around the time of 1492-1493, while Champlains was almost two hundred years later in 1608-1612. Columbus had to deal with a lot of natives in the West Indies that could not speak their native language. These natives also looked as the men of Columbus crew as gods sent from heaven. Champlain did not have it so easy. He had to deal with the Native American tribes of the great lakes area. These tribes, such as the Iroquois and the Huron, were sometimes not the best people to have to deal with. The Iroquois especially were not very friendly to the members of Champlains group. They were enemies of the Huron and the Huron were allies of the French. Before Champlain had to do battle with the Iroquois Columbus was worshiped by the natives of what is now present-day Cuba. He was able to give them glass beads in exchange for some very important items for his expedition. He was  able to get water and spices for the small glass beads. He was of course looking for what every Spanish explorer who sought out the natives of present day South America was looking for, gold. These two different journals were not all different however. They did have some similarities. In fact they have more in common than they have different from each other. The way nature is described in each journal is very similar. Columbus uses a very poetic style to describe the flora and fauna that he saw on his travels. Columbus describes the birds and trees that he sees in the tropical region very eloquently. Champlain uses this style as well to describe the nature that he saw along the St. Lawrence. He uses the same style in describing the forests and the deer that he encountered on his trip. This is just one of the many similarities that each journal has though. Besides the obvious comparison of sharing chronological time they share a same purpose. They were both meant to tell of their journeys. They tell them in a different way, but regardless they still tell of them. Columbus tells of his journeys through the Americas so that we may have an understanding of what he and his crew did during 1492. Champlain kept his for basically the same reason. These stories obviously became and vital piece of history. These stories also had another aspect in common; each man shared in some kind of a hardship. Columbus, in the Narrative of the Third Voyage talks about having a hard time getting to America. Champlain had an even rougher time in his second story. Champlain talks about being lost in the woods after hunting a bird that he followed. He gets lost and has to go through quite an ordeal to get back. Columbus also had many hardships to go through. He describes being stuck in a terrible place to be caught while sailing. The place he describes has not very much wind, it was very hot, and full of seaweed. These two definitely went through some tough times. Samuel de Champlain and Christopher Columbus wrote two very spectacular journals. They kept them perfectly and help the world see what exactly they  went through in their travels. Each of these men was an obviously very important figure, without Columbus who knows what would have happened in the Americas. Champlain also helped chart the area around the great lakes that was dominated by Native Americans at the time. Their journals should obviously be considered a vital piece of American Literature.

Revelations Brought Forth from the Scaffolding Scenes in The Scarlet Letter :: essays research papers

Within the Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne the imagery of revelation works as a reoccurring theme to bring the reader into the characters view of the incidences going on before them. These ‘revelations’, scattered throughout the story, work as awakenings or realizations of the current situation that the character is presently in or situations they may have to face in the future. All of the characters presented into the story have revelations of some sort. One key discovery theme used in this story is the realization of identification; this is presented as the characters previously thinking they knew somebody and what they stood for, yet they are proved wrong in their beliefs. Another reoccurrence of a theme, used in the story, is the usage of the scaffolding in the center of town to unfold a revelation in the characters lives. The scaffolding situation takes place three times within the story, each time with a different circumstance and a change of the witnesses t o the scene; but with a revelation that slightly changes the character from what they were before they stood upon the scaffolding. The first instance when the scaffolding appears is the beginning of the story when Hester Prynne is sentenced to stand upon it, bearing her child and the ominous letter ‘A’, for a set time as her punishment for adultery. This takes place during the day as the entire town is placed before to observe. The second scene of scaffold revelation brings the Reverend Dimmesdale to the top of the platform alone as he attempts to lift the weighty guilt off of his chest. Finally, towards the end of the story, we see Hester, Reverend Dimmesdale, and their child, Pearl standing together in front of the judging crowd. In each of these scenes the revelations captured in that moment by the character or characters remain pivotal parts of story and ultimately of the characters lives. The first scaffolding scene serves as a revelation to, I believe, everyone in the town. Hester’s crime surely must have touched somebody in the large crowd with a revelation of their own guilt. Shame for a past covered sin or perhaps contempt, as even contempt is a sin that should yield shame, for Hester, herself, was most likely felt in many of the townsfolk that day. Yet, the main revelations coming forth in this scene were brought forth by the realizations of the situations each character found his or herself presently in.

Psychosis Portrayed in the Media

Impact of Media’s Portrayal of Psychotic Illness on Viewers Introduction Psychotic disorders are the more serious form of mental illness, particularly schizophrenia. Many multidimensional factors have contributed to the social stigma of psychotic mental illness, deeming it a social problem. According to Landsberg and Rock (2010), stigma and discrimination impacts policy and program response to the issue, causing limitations on our financing. As a result, there is a deficiency of resources provided by macro and micro level systems for individuals battling with the illness despite a recent shift in society’s perception. Programs such as National Alliance for the Mentally Ill and the Recovery Movement have been trying to increase public understanding of the illness, advocate for government resources, and emphasize supportive networks such as family, friends, and mental health providers (Hertz, 2010). Unfortunately, the complexity of this illness and lack of thorough understanding continues to reinforce and sustain the stigma. Additionally, individuals discharged into the community from institutions have not been well supported by micro-level services. As a result, many commit crimes and end up in jail. Landsberg and Rock (2010) found that many seriously mentally ill patients are in nursing homes, homeless shelters, and jails because of unmet needs. Community mental health centers have more patients than staff can handle (Hertz, 2010). In spite of various attempts, the mental health system is comprised of programs that â€Å"don’t work†, leaving many seriously ill individuals without proper care (Landsberg and Rock, 2010, pg. 258). These wide ranges of factors contribute to viewing serious mental illness as a social problem that is stigmatized as well. In terms of social stigma, there are several misconceptions. Hertz (2010) found that the public misperceives people with psychotic illness as homicidal. The truth of research indicates that these individuals are more frequently victims of crime perpetrated by others, or, tragically, by their own hands (Hertz, 2010). Unfortunately, the daunting ways in which symptoms may manifest prevent people from establishing any positive associations with such illness. The media portrays psychotic disorders through different perspectives, ultimately sending mixed messages to audiences about the nature and prospects of the illness. Landsberg and Rock (2010) stated that movies often picture the mentally ill as violent, negatively affecting our society’s willingness to enact needed changes and fund programs. The movies A Beautiful Mind, K-PAX, and The Soloist each portray a character living with a psychotic disorder, particularly Schizophrenia, who also demonstrates strength and resilience in their struggles. The intent of this paper is to discuss characteristics of psychotic illness, critically analyze these movies and their message to audiences, and assess accuracy within their portrayals. Brief History of Mental Illness as a Social Problem There are conflicting ideologies in terms of how to approach serious mental illness in the United States. While some adopt a â€Å"survival of the fittest† perspective and believe affected individuals shouldn’t receive assistance, others act as committed advocates for programs to service them. When looking at the recent history of mental health, several attempts at revolutionizing systems were made, and always seem to only partially work. As a result, more systems that partially work were created. The 1950’s through the 1970’s emphasized inpatient hospitalization for psychotic patients without much chance for their self-determination and self-empowerment. Solutions were very problem-focused, and patients received their treatment of insulin shock therapy. Socially, there seemed to be more emphasis on regarding anyone with a psychotic illness as â€Å"crazy†, and therefore someone to stay away from. The deinstitutionalization movement in the 1970’s and the creation of managed care was an attempt to steer away from â€Å"putting people away†. As a result, many hospitals were shut down. The problem with this system was the lack of funds allocated towards community-based services. Now that the patient’s length of stay at hospitals significantly decreased, patients have been discharged into the streets, and left to their own devices. While many have been receiving adequate services, many are not receiving proper care and result in committing crimes, engaging in other illegal activity, becoming homeless, or just functioning on a very low level. Hertz (2010) stated that the waiting lists for residual programs for the chronically mentally ill are months, if not years long. This implies the staggering amount of people not receiving proper aftercare. A true solution is yet to be discovered. Background on Psychotic Disorders with an Emphasis on Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is currently affecting nearly 2. 5 million people living in the United States, and 29 million people worldwide (Hertz, 2010). The typical beginning of this illness is during adolescence or early adulthood. Hertz (2010) reported that the onset can be gradual, starting with odd beliefs and mannerisms, while other onsets are acute with a sudden psychotic break. These research findings imply the complexity in how symptoms manifest, and pose a challenge for practitioners to pinpoint and potentially diagnosis. There exists a social misconception regarding psychotic disorders. Psychotic symptoms may appear in disorders other than Schizophrenia, and the presence of psychotic symptoms doesn’t necessarily indicate diagnosis of Schizophrenia. Hertz (2010) stated that withdrawal from reality marks psychosis, containing two major symptoms: delusions and hallucinations. Schizophrenia is particularly characterized as a thought disorder which builds on these symptoms to include impaired cognitive functioning such as â€Å"loose associations of ideas/thoughts and disturbance of affect† (Hertz, 2010, p. 285). There are several types of schizophrenia, and is defined by positive and negative symptoms which indicate the existence or deficiency of functioning. Hepworth, Rooney, and Larsen (2010) found that positive symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and catatonic behavior. According to Hepworth, Rooney, and Larsen (2010), negative symptoms include flattened affect, restricted speech, and limited initiation of goal-directed behavior. The causes of psychotic disorders are ultimately unknown, and many different theories emphasize different contributing factors. According to Hertz (2010), genetics, heredity, and neuro chemistry determine varying degrees of predisposition to developing psychosis. This research finding implies that environmental and social stressors play a role as well. A Beautiful Mind John Nash is the main character in A Beautiful Mind who is predominantly battling with the paranoid subtype of schizophrenia. The movie follows the life of mathematician John Nash who is responsible for creating several ingenious theories such as game theory still used in economics today. He attended Ivy League Princeton University in the 1940’s after which he became a calculus professor at MIT five years later. Falling in love with one of his students, Mr. John Nash started a family and continued working on theories and concepts as a product of his mastermind. Gradually throughout the course of Mr. Nash’s academic and intellectual achievements, the movie directed attention to the display and effect of his psychotic illness. Several aspects of Mr. Nash’s psychotic symptoms were portrayed through different characters and plot points. His college roommate Charles, Charles’s niece Marcee, and Department of Defense agent William Parcher were three characters that were eventually revealed as part of his visual and auditory hallucinations. Agent Parcher also marked Mr. Nash’s delusional thinking when he invited him to crack a special code of their enemy at the Pentagon. Throughout the movie, viewers periodically see Mr. Nash involved with Parcher in various assignments that appeared prestigious and extremely intellectual. In the beginning of the movie, Charles’s character was designed for audiences to believe he was real, given the strong and realistic friendship that transpired between him and Mr. Nash. However, as the years went by and Marcee stayed the same age, Mr. Nash realized she was a figment of his imagination. Mr. Nash’s delusions have put his family in danger on numerous occasions. He nearly allowed his son to drown while bathing him, and accidentally knocked his wife Alicia over when agent Parcher told him to kill her. After Alicia had enough of his behavior, she called the psychiatric hospital where he was admitted to receive insulin shock therapy, a common treatment for psychosis in the 1950’s. After agreeing to take anti-psychotic medications, Mr. Nash was released from the hospital. Unfortunately, he ended up stockpiling the medication without aking them, resulting in relapse of his psychotic symptoms. Lesser and Pope (2010) stated that psychotropic medications are effective in ceasing or reducing psychotic symptoms but often have unpleasant side effects. Mr. Nash’s detrimental side effects included reduction in intellectual abilities, and impairments to his relationship with his wife. Ultimately, Mr. Nash has learned to manage his symptoms and live with his illn ess. The message this movie hopefully sends out to viewers is that serious mental illness can affect bright and well educated people, and that recovery is possible. Moreover, the movie encourages viewers to realize that even individuals with serious mental illness can excel in certain areas of life, if not reaching levels of genius. While the media, as previously stated, typically portrays individuals with mental illness as violent antagonists, Mr. Nash is portrayed as a protagonist despite his mild violence during psychotic episodes. Viewers likely feel compassion for him and want to see him win his battles. The movie accurately portrayed environmental stressors that may cause unpredictable emotional breakdowns. Mr. Nash’s character was portrayed as getting frustrated and angry when he thought he couldn’t fulfill the duties agent Parcher has assigned him. He was worried that the Russians are after him, and felt pressure to crack the code that never existed. Moreover, when he was admitted to the hospital, he perceived doctors to be Russian spies, a reasonable portrayal of paranoid schizophrenia. Luckily, Mr. Nash trained himself to transcend his symptoms by acknowledging, followed by ignoring, their existence. While it has been stated that the real John Nash only experienced auditory hallucinations, A Beautiful Mind seemed to incorporate visual hallucinations for entertainment purposes, inaccurately portraying and exaggerating Mr. Nash’s illness. However, accuracy was shown through the many psychotic breakdowns Mr. Nash experienced, demonstrating emotional and physical breakdowns. Although he put his wife and child in danger on numerous occasions, Alicia served as his main support system. Hertz (2010) stated that supportive networks are a critical variable in determining the quality of life of people with Schizophrenia. In fact, it is arguable that in this movie, Mr. Nash demonstrated more resilience and strength than is realistically common in the United States for people with psychotic illness. Not everyone has access to the kind of support he did given his prestigious status as a mathematician. Additionally, he had the support of his loving wife who never abandoned him and seemed to be the main source of his resilience. K-PAX Prot is the main character in K-PAX who demonstrates delusional thinking as part of his psychosis. As previously discussed, he didn’t necessarily have Schizophrenia. Prot was admitted to the hospital after claiming to be an alien from a planet called K-PAX. As psychiatrist Mark Powell begins to treat Prot, he learns of his excelling intellect in the subject of astronomy. Stunned by this wisdom, Mark introduced Prot to some astro-physicists who were puzzled by his recollection of traveling from a different planet by a means of light travel. Prot and Mike’s relationship grew stronger with each treatment session, and Prot revealed his knowledge of life on planet K-PAX. Prot also had a positive influence on other patients in the hospital who believed he was from a different planet. Prot began to display erratic emotional breakdowns that were indicative of his psychosis. He had an episode during some of his sessions with Mark, as well as in front of Mike’s family when he was invited over for dinner. Prot began to repeatedly mention that he is going back to planet K-PAX on July 27th. Mark started to make connections between what triggers lead to Prot’s hysteria. Additionally, he used regressive hypnosis to discover the significance of the date July 27th, suspecting he suffered from significant loss. He learned that Prot has attempted suicide after his family was killed on July 27th. When that date finally came, Prot was found catatonic, and the ending of the movie was open to interpretation. This movie sends several messages to viewers. One of them includes the strong impact trauma may have on individuals. Prot attempted suicide without success after his family was killed, marking the onset of his delusions. Hertz (2010) found that suicide attempts are a common and often overlooked occurrence within psychotic symptoms, and often occur during the first psychotic episode when the individual feels bewildered and out of control. His feelings of bewilderment were likely caused by seeing his family get killed, a realistic reaction to such a tragic occurrence. K-PAX hopefully teaches audiences to realize that many of the severely mentally ill individuals could have experienced significant loss in their lives that was out of their control, leading to their illness. There was nothing substantial provided in the beginning of the movie which aroused sympathy for Prot’s character. It is arguable that audiences could have perceived all his discussions about travelling from another planet as him â€Å"joking† around with authorities. He wore black sunglasses, and seriously spoke about life on another planet. However, as the movie showed several emotional breakdowns, it was evident that he has experienced significant psychological trauma of loss. Hertz (2010) stated that psychotic symptoms are often triggered by a significant loss, and environmental stressors can trigger neuro chemical events in the brain. The movie accurately portrayed the concept of surrounding triggers. For instance, Prot was reminded of the tragedy when the sprinklers came on at Mike’s house, causing flashbacks of his trauma. Assessing accuracy of his intense reaction is difficult, for, each individual reacts to triggers to varying degrees. His particular reaction involved crying and an appearance of deep sadness. The Soloist Nathaniel Ayres is the main character in The Soloist who is portrayed to struggle with Paranoid Schizophrenia as his psychotic disorder. The movie follows the life of Anthony Ayres, a man who became homeless as a result of his illness. Journalist Steve Lopez was desperately seeking material for a story to meet a deadline. One day he heard someone playing the cello so beautifully that he felt compelled to follow the music. As a result, he met a homeless man named Nathaniel who claimed to have attended Julliard for his musical talents. Steve tested his word by calling the school, only to find out that Nathaniel has indeed attended Julliard, but has dropped out after his second year. Steve ended up writing his story on Nathaniel. As their friendship progressed, Steve became more interested in Nathaniel’s safety, and wanted him to receive treatment. Flashbacks to the onset of Nathaniel’s Schizophrenia were portrayed to answer Steve’s questions as to why he is no longer in Julliard and living in a shelter. In response to the published story, readers responded with sympathy, and one woman even sent Nathaniel a Cello. Eventually, Steve convinced Nathaniel to perform in front of an audience which triggered his auditory hallucinations. The end of the movie displayed Nathaniel continuing to struggle with his illness, but no longer living in a shelter, marking progress. His friendship with Steve and his music seem to help manage his symptoms, according to psychiatrists Steve has consulted with. In addition to serious mental illness, The Soloist portrays another social problem that is stigmatized: homelessness. Hertz (2010) estimated that 60% of people with schizophrenia live in poverty, and 1 in 20 ends up homeless. The movie portrays Nathaniel as someone who has been exposed to treatments such as medications and shock therapy, and doesn’t want anything to do with them. It seemed as though he felt he belonged in a shelter as opposed to an apartment where his symptoms emerge. The message of this film is for audiences to realize that homeless people aren’t necessarily â€Å"lazy†, or â€Å"can’t get a job†. Conversely, they may have suffered from symptoms which inevitably led to that lifestyle. Through flashbacks, Nathaniel was portrayed as a productive and gifted member of society who attended a prestigious musical institution, and tried to start his young adult life living in an apartment. Unfortunately, he was overpowered by his auditory hallucinations, making him paranoid and scared. Hopefully audiences will reorient their mentality and not disregard homeless individuals as those that haven’t worked hard enough to attain a job and a place to live. Some of them have truly been overpowered by persistent mental illness. In terms of accuracy, The Soloist fairly portrayed the possible impact of stressors in the environment that trigger psychotic episodes. For Nathaniel, the pressure of performing well in front of an audience triggered â€Å"voices† which led him to run away. Additionally, unless an individual is medicated, it is rare for psychotic symptoms to not emerge. In the movie, Nathaniel was not receiving treatment at the time he became friends with Steve, and it was shown through his inability to have coherent conversations with him. Furthermore, he was unable to hold on to an apartment, and even felt comforted by the city street noises. His physical appearance was also unkempt and very colorful, reasonably displaying what someone with this disorder could potentially look like. Comparisons and Contrasts between Films There are several similarities and differences in the way media portrayed these characters suffering from serious mental illness. While the etiology, symptoms, and course of their disorders slightly differed, they all share a strong support system which provided them self-determination and potential for growth, similar to the goals of the Recovery Movement. Hertz (2010) stated that the presence of someone who believes in their recovery increase recovery rates. Mr. John Nash had the privilege of a supportive wife. Realistically, it may be an exception that an affected individual is a coveted professor with a family by his side assisting his struggles. Prot developed a relationship with his Psychiatrist. It is rare, if not unethical, for a patient’s psychiatrist to invite them into their home and introduce them to family members. More importantly, it seems rare for a psychiatrist to invest so much emotional effort into one particular case, especially one that is middle aged and has been in the practice for so long. Nathaniel formed a strong friendship with journalist Steve Lopez. Most severely mentally ill homeless individuals are not â€Å"discovered† by someone who decides to believe in them; most, as previously discussed, are underserved and not receiving proper treatment and care. While the storylines were touching and enlightening, they are very rare. These situations seem to be an exception rather than the rule, making the character portrayals inaccurate in terms of exaggerating the levels of support. Another important similarity accurately portraying psychotic disorders is the fact that there is no known cure. None of the characters were â€Å"cured† by the end of the movie, but rather found their own ways of coping with symptoms. The ultimate message was moderately accurate when showing psychotic mental illness; every single case should be viewed individually despite the one set of guidelines for diagnosis provided in the DSM-IV. Research has been clear about one thing: psychotic disorders remain etiologically perplexing and challenging to treat (Hertz, 2010). As a result, it is fairly easy for media to â€Å"play around† with psychotic illness through characters, since there is ultimately no absolute truth to reference, and thereby deem â€Å"inaccurate†. Since symptoms are a product of the person’s psyche, there seem to be no limits as to how creative psychotic symptoms and reactions may become. Interestingly, all three characters in the films are men. Research found that more men than women are given the diagnosis of a psychotic disorder (Hertz, 2010). Also, each movie emphasizes a different aspect of psychotic illness. A Beautiful Mind focuses on illness affecting a genius mind; K-PAX signifies the impact of a traumatic loss, and The Soloist show how symptoms can lead to homelessness. Conclusion According to Lesser and Pope (2010), psychiatry critic Thomas Szasz believed that the diagnosis of psychiatric illnesses was socially constructed, vary culture to culture, and is society’s way of labeling individuals when their behavior breaks social rules. Nonetheless, the use of the DSM system prevails in the United States, and many individuals â€Å"labeled† under its guidelines are in need of services, reinforcing mental illness as a social problem. The deinstitutionalization movement in the 1970’s as an attempt to serve the severely mentally ill has created a new array of social problems given the lack of funding anticipated for these goals. Hertz (2010) presented that the sickest people in our society are â€Å"lost in the cracks† as they are discharged from institutions to poor and inadequate aftercare. The media provides several portrayals of serious mental illness. The three movies chosen for discussion (A Beautiful Mind, K-PAX, and The Soloist) ultimately portray the strength and resilience possible even for the most seriously mentally ill individuals, when provided with emotional and social resources. Implicitly, hope is not lost, and Hertz (2010) proposed a solution to make a shift in our priorities: making a commitment to even the most disturbed members of our society. As demonstrated in the three films, two of which were based on real life people and events, individuals with even the most serious of mental illness can show strength and resilience. References Berzoff, J. , Melano Flanagan, L. , & Hertz, P. (2008). Chapter 13: The psychoses, with a special emphasis on schizophrenia (pp. 281-310). Inside out and outside in: Psychodynamic clinical theory and psychopathology in contemporary multicultural contexts (2nd ed. ). New York: Jason Aronson. Hepworth, D. , Rooney, R. & Larsen, J. 2010). Chapter 9: Assessment: Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, and Environmental Factors. (pp. 199-226). Direct social work practice: Theory and skills (8th ed. ). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Landsberg, G. , & Rock, M. (2010). Chapter 9: Mental Health. Social policy and social work: The context of social work practice. New York, NY: Pearson. Lesser, J. G. , & Pope, D. S. (2010). Chapter 17: Chronic illness and disability. (pp. 437-464). Human Behavior in the Social En vironment: Theory and Practice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.